Elements of a Story   What an “element” is and why it matters Firstly, an element of a story is a basic building block that makes narratives work. Secondly, when students learn these elements, they can analyse stories and create their own with purpose. Moreover, teaching elements help readers understand how meaning is made; therefore, your book will give learners both tools and confidence. Here are five main Elements of Story: 1. Characters 2. Setting 3. Plot 4. Conflict 5. Theme Besides these, here are some less common Elements of Story: 1. Point of view 2. Tone 3. Mood 4. Dialogue 5. Narration 6. Symbolism 1. Characters Characters are the people, animals, or beings who take part in the story. They drive the plot forward and face the conflict. Types of Characters: a) Protagonist – The main character; the hero. b) Antagonist – The character or force that opposes the protagonist. c) Dynamic Character – Changes by the end (emotionally, mentally). d) Static Character – Remains the same throughout the story. e) Minor Characters – Support the story but are not the focus. Example: In Cinderella: ·         Protagonist: Cinderella ·         Antagonist: Stepmother ·         Dynamic: Cinderella ·         Static: Stepfamily 2. Setting The time, place, and environment where the story occurs. Parts of Setting: a) Time – Day/night, historical period, season, year. b) Place – Country, city, room, forest, village. c) Social Environment – Culture, traditions, lifestyle, politics. d) Weather & Mood – Rainy, stormy, sunny; creates atmosphere. Example: ·         A haunted house at midnight → scary mood ·         A school classroom in the morning → normal, everyday mood 3. Plot The structure of events in a story. It shows how the story begins, develops, and ends. Five Parts of a Plot: a) Exposition ·         Introduces characters and setting. ·         Provides background information. b) Rising Action ·         Conflict begins. ·         Suspense increases. ·         Problems become more complicated. c) Climax ·      The most exciting moment. ·      The turning point where the main character faces the biggest challenge. d) Falling Action ·         Events after the climax. ·         The conflict starts to settle. e) Resolution ·         The final outcome. ·         The conflict is solved, and the story ends. 4. Conflict Conflict is the struggle between opposing forces. It creates interest and moves the story forward. Types of Conflict: a) Character vs Character Two characters oppose each other. Example: Hero vs villain. b) Character vs Self Internal struggle; deciding right or wrong. Example: Fear, guilt, confusion. c) Character vs Nature Struggling against storms, earthquakes, animals, etc. Example: A sailor fighting a storm. d) Character vs Society Against laws, rules, traditions, or the whole society. Example: A girl fighting for education. e) Character vs Fate / Supernatural Against destiny, prophecies, ghosts, or magical powers. 5. Theme The central idea, message, or lesson of the story. It is what the story teaches us about life. Common Themes: ·         Honesty is the best policy. ·         Good wins over evil. ·         Hard work leads to success. ·         Love and kindness matter. ·         Appearances can be deceptive. Theme is NOT the plot; it is the meaning behind the plot. 6. Point of View The perspective from which the story is told. Types: a) First Person ·       Narrator uses I, me, my. ·       We see the story through the narrator’s eyes. Example: “I walked into the room…” b) Second Person ·       Uses you. ·       Rare in stories; often used in instructions. Example: “You walk into the forest…” c) Third Person Limited ·         Narrator uses he, she, they. ·         Only knows the thoughts of one character. d) Third Person Omniscient ·         Narrator knows the thoughts of all characters. ·         “All-knowing narrator.” e) Third Person Objective ·         Narrator reports only actions and dialogue. ·         No thoughts or feelings. 7. Tone Tone is the writer’s attitude toward the subject. It shows how the author feels about what they are writing. Examples: ·         Serious ·         Funny ·         Angry ·         Sad ·         Sarcastic ·         Hopeful 8. Mood Mood is the feeling created in the reader. It helps the reader emotionally connect with the story. Examples: ·         Scary ·         Romantic ·         Mysterious ·         Joyful ·         Tense ·         Peaceful Example: “A dark forest filled with fog” → creates a mysterious, scary mood. 9. Dialogue (Optional but important) Conversation between characters. Shows personality, emotions, and advances the plot. 10. Narration (Optional Element) How the story is told — description, storytelling style, voice. 11. Symbolism (Optional Element) When an object, character, or event represents a deeper meaning. Example: ·         Dove → peace ·         Road → life choices ·         Tree → growth   Main Elements of Story in Details:   Element 1: Characters Definition Characters are the lifelike figures who perform actions, experience events, and drive the story forward. They can be people, animals, imaginary beings, or symbolic figures. They are the driving force of every narrative because the plot moves forward only through their choices, desires, strengths, and weaknesses. In literature, characters are not just “participants”; rather, they are the heart of the story, shaping its direction, meaning, and emotional power. Why Characters Matter Firstly, characters make a story relatable because readers connect with their desires, fears, and decisions. Secondly, characters allow the author to communicate themes through their choices and transformations. Moreover, the entire plot — conflict, climax, and resolution — usually depends on what characters want and what stops them. Therefore, understanding characters is essential for understanding literature. Types of Characters (Fully Explained) 1. Protagonist The protagonist is the main character, the centre of the narrative. The protagonist's journey, struggle, or transformation forms the heart of the story. ·         The story follows their journey. ·         The central conflict usually affects them the most. ·         They often experience internal or external change. Example:   After Twenty Years” – Bob, also called “Silky Bob,” is the protagonist who returns to meet his old friend after twenty years. The story revolves around his loyalty and unexpected fate.   “The Last Leaf” – Johnsy is the protagonist because the emotional conflict centres on her illness and loss of hope.   “The Pearl” – Kino is the protagonist, fighting to protect his family and struggling against greed and corruption.   “The Necklace” – Mathilde Loisel is the protagonist, whose desire for luxury leads to her downfall.   2. Antagonist The antagonist is the force that opposes the protagonist. This force may be a person, society, nature, or even the character’s own thinking. Following are the examples of the antagonist: ·         A villain ·         A natural disaster ·         Society or rules ·         The protagonist’s own fear or guilt Purpose: Create difficulty, tension, and conflict. Examples from the stories/novels: ·      “After Twenty Years” – The law becomes the antagonist. Bob’s past crimes oppose his desire to reunite with his friend. ·      “The Last Leaf” – Johnsy’s own hopelessness acts as the antagonist. Her belief that she will die when the last leaf falls becomes the enemy. ·      “The Pearl” – Greed is the major antagonist. Kino battles pearl buyers, thieves, attackers, and society’s corruption—all caused by greed. ·      “The Necklace” – Mathilde’s vanity and pride act as her own antagonist, pushing her into unnecessary suffering.   3. Major Characters These characters are deeply involved in the main events. They influence the storyline and relationship patterns. Examples: ·      “After Twenty Years” – Jimmy Wells, the policeman, is a major character. His moral integrity leads him to make a difficult decision about his old friend. ·     “The Last Leaf” – Sue, Johnsy’s devoted friend, is essential to the story because she cares for Johnsy and influences her emotional journey. ·      “The Pearl” – Juana, Kino’s wife, is a major character. Her wisdom, warnings, and actions highlight the moral lesson of the story. ·      “The Necklace” – Monsieur Loisel is a major character who supports his wife and later suffers with her.   4. Minor Characters Minor characters support the main characters. They appear less often but: ·         Provide information ·         Help move the plot ·         Highlight traits of major characters They make the fictional world complete and realistic. Examples from stories/novels ·     “After Twenty Years” – The plainclothes officer who arrests Bob is a minor character. ·     “The Last Leaf” – The Doctor is a minor character who provides medical insight and creates emotional contrast. ·     “The Pearl” – The beggars, the neighbours, and the pearl buyers are minor characters representing society. ·     “The Necklace” – Madame Forestier, though central to the twist, has a limited presence, making her a minor but significant character.   5. Dynamic Characters Dynamic characters change internally as the story progresses. Dynamic characters change emotionally, mentally, or morally by the end of the story. ·         They may gain wisdom, overcome fear, or learn a moral lesson. ·         Their transformation often reveals the theme. Examples ·     “After Twenty Years” – Jimmy Wells changes from a sentimental friend to a dutiful officer who chooses justice over personal emotion. ·     “The Pearl” – Kino transforms drastically—from a simple, content fisherman to a man consumed by ambition and fear. ·     “The Necklace” – Mathilde Loisel changes from a proud, dissatisfied woman to a hard-working and humbled one after years of suffering. (“The Last Leaf” has mostly static characters since their personalities remain stable.)   6. Static Characters Static characters remain the same from beginning to end. Their thoughts, values, or behaviours do not significantly change. Their personality remains stable. However, they are still important because they: ·         Provide stability ·         Serve as contrasts to dynamic characters ·         Represent fixed ideas or traditions Examples from stories/novels ·     “After Twenty Years” – Bob remains confident and loyal, unaware of his own fate. ·      “The Last Leaf” – Behrman, the old painter, remains consistently brave, kind, and self-sacrificing until the end. ·      “The Pearl” – Juana remains steady, wise, and morally rooted throughout the story. ·      “The Necklace” – Monsieur Loisel stays supportive and loving, even when life becomes difficult.   7. Round Characters Round characters are fully developed, with complex emotions and realistic traits. They have: ·         Multiple traits ·         Mixed emotions ·         Realistic strengths and flaws Readers feel they could exist in real life. Examples from stories/novels: ·      Kino from “The Pearl”—loving father, proud, hopeful, then violent and fearful. ·      Mathilde Loisel from “The Necklace”—ambitious, ungrateful, vain, later regretful and mature. ·      Jimmy Wells from “After Twenty Years”—loyal friend and sincere policeman with divided feelings.   8. Flat Characters Flat characters represent one or two traits only. They exist to support the plot and highlight major characters. Examples: ·      Bob in “After Twenty Years” is mostly shown as confident and loyal. ·      Behrman in “The Last Leaf” appears only as a gruff but kind old painter. ·      The pearl buyers in “The Pearl” represent greed and corruption. ·      Madame Forestier in “The Necklace” is generous and nothing more is shown.     Revealing Character: Techniques Authors Use How Characters Are Revealed (Characterization): 1. Direct Characterization The writer directly tells the reader what the character is like. Example: “Ali was brave and honest.” Examples from stories/novels: ·      In “The Last Leaf”, O. Henry directly describes Behrman as a “fierce little old man with a strong body.” ·      In “The Pearl”, Kino is described as obedient to nature and tradition. 2. Indirect Characterization The writer shows the character’s personality through: ·         Actions ·         Speech ·         Thoughts ·         Reactions of other characters ·         Appearance Indirect characterization allows readers to infer and think critically. Examples: ·      Jimmy Wells shows moral strength by sending another officer to arrest his friend rather than betraying him face-to-face. ·      Johnsy’s hopelessness is shown through her belief that she will die when the last leaf falls. ·      Kino’s growing greed is shown by his actions—attacking people, refusing Juana’s advice, and risking his family’s safety. ·      Mathilde’s vanity is shown through her sadness about not wearing expensive jewellery.   Role of Characters in the Story Structure 1. Characters build the themes: ·      “After Twenty Years” demonstrates loyalty, justice, and moral duty through Jimmy and Bob. ·      “The Last Leaf” shows sacrifice, hope, and friendship, especially through Behrman and Sue. ·      “The Pearl” explores greed, ambition, and corruption through Kino’s changing personality. ·      “The Necklace” reveals pride, illusion, and the cost of vanity through Mathilde. Characters do not only “exist” in these stories—they teach lessons through their actions and transformations.   2. Characters create the plot A story begins when a character: ·         wants something ·         faces a problem ·         takes action How Characters Create the Plot A plot does not move by itself. It begins and develops because of the characters—their desires, fears, decisions, and actions. Every story starts when a character wants something, then faces a problem, and finally takes action to solve it. These three steps form the foundation of any narrative. Below is a full explanation with examples from: ·         After Twenty Years by O. Henry ·         The Last Leaf by O. Henry ·         The Pearl by John Steinbeck ·         The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant 1. A Story Begins When a Character Wants Something Every main character (protagonist) has a desire or goal. This desire starts the story. Examples: • After Twenty Years Bob wants to meet his old friend, Jimmy Wells, after twenty years. His desire to keep a promise is the reason the story begins. • The Last Leaf Johnsy wants only one thing — she believes she will die when the last leaf falls, and deep inside, she wants hope or a reason to live. Behrman wants to paint one masterpiece before he dies. • The Pearl Kino wants a better life for his family. His desire is awakened when he finds “the Pearl of the World.” • The Necklace Mathilde wants to appear wealthy and admired. Her desire for social status starts the story and shapes her decisions. 2. A Story Develops When a Character Faces a Problem A plot becomes interesting when the character meets an obstacle that stops them from easily getting what they want. This obstacle creates conflict, which is the heart of all stories. Examples: • After Twenty Years Bob faces a problem: he does not know that Jimmy is now a police officer who must arrest him. • The Last Leaf Johnsy faces a deadly illness and loses the will to live. Behrman faces poverty, age, and the challenge of creating one great painting. • The Pearl Kino’s problem begins when greedy neighbors, buyers, and thieves try to take the pearl. His dream becomes a danger. • The Necklace Mathilde’s problem begins when she loses the borrowed diamond necklace. This one mistake ruins her life. 3. A Story Moves Forward When a Character Takes Action Characters respond to problems by making choices and taking actions. These actions shape the events, create new situations, and push the plot toward climax and resolution. Examples: • After Twenty Years Jimmy takes action by sending another officer to arrest Bob. This action reveals loyalty, duty, and the surprise twist. • The Last Leaf Behrman takes action by painting a leaf on the wall during a storm. This action saves Johnsy’s life but costs Behrman his own. • The Pearl Kino takes action by trying to sell the pearl, protecting his family, and escaping the attackers. Each action increases the tension of the plot. • The Necklace Mathilde and her husband take action by borrowing money and replacing the necklace. This action leads to ten years of suffering — the main plot of the story. Characters create the plot because: 1.      They desire something. 2.      They meet challenges while trying to get it. 3.      They take actions that shape the story’s direction. Characters carry the theme Themes become meaningful only through characters’ experiences, struggles, and transformations. 3. Characters build emotional connection Readers care about what happens next because they care about characters. Characters are not just figures in a story; they are the emotional bridge between the reader and the narrative. Readers feel connected to a story when they understand — or feel — the character’s fears, hopes, dreams, mistakes, and struggles. When characters seem real, readers care about what happens to them, and the emotional connection becomes the driving force behind engagement and empathy. In literature, emotional connection is created through three elements: Relatability – we see ourselves in them Sympathy – we feel sorry for them Admiration – we respect their choices or sacrifices   Characters are the living core of a story. They shape the direction of the plot, create conflict, and carry the theme. Through the characters in “After Twenty Years,” “The Last Leaf,” “The Pearl,” and “The Necklace,” we learn that human qualities such as loyalty, hope, greed, pride, sacrifice, and moral courage are the true forces that make a story meaningful and memorable.  Second Element of Story is Setting   1. Definition of Setting Setting refers to the time, place, and environment in which the story happens. It includes: ·       Geographical location (city, village, room, street) ·       Time period (past, present, future, season, time of day) ·       Social environment (customs, class, lifestyle, beliefs) ·      Weather and atmosphere (rain, cold, darkness, mood of the place) Setting shapes the mood, influences characters’ actions, and helps readers understand why events happen the way they do. 2. Why Setting Is Important Setting is not only a background; it is a powerful force in storytelling. It: 1.      Creates atmosphere and emotional tone 2.      Reflects characters’ inner feelings 3.      Helps explain characters’ behaviour 4.      Supports the theme 5.      Makes the story realistic and memorable 3. Types of Setting a. Physical Setting Where does the story take place? b. Temporal Setting When does the story occur? c. Social Setting What kind of society, culture, traditions, values, or class do characters live in? d. Atmospheric Setting What mood does the place create? (sad, mysterious, hopeful, fearful) 4. Setting in the Four Stories (Full Explanation) Below is how setting works in each story and how it affects plot, theme, and characters. A. Setting in After Twenty Years (O. Henry) Physical Setting: A dark, quiet street in New York City, late at night. Temporal Setting: A specific time — 10 p.m. on a cold night, twenty years after a promise. Atmosphere: Mysterious and suspenseful. The empty street, faint lights, and silence create tension. Social Environment: Urban life, police responsibility, and changing values over twenty years. How Setting Shapes the Story: ·      The dark street allows the “unknown identity” twist to work. ·      The cold atmosphere reflects emotional distance between old friends. ·      The nighttime setting adds suspense to the meeting. ·      The quietness allows a private conversation between Bob and the disguised officer. The story would lose its impact if set during the daytime or in a crowded place. B. Setting in The Last Leaf (O. Henry) Physical Setting: Greenwich Village, New York — small, old apartments, narrow streets, an ivy vine on a wall. Temporal Setting: Early 1900s, during winter. Atmosphere: Cold, gloomy, depressing — matching Johnsy’s illness. Social Environment: A struggling artist community with poor living conditions. Artists supporting each other emotionally and financially. How Setting Shapes the Story: ·     The harsh winter symbolizes Johnsy’s hopelessness. ·     The ivy vine becomes a central symbol because of the building’s layout. ·     Poverty explains why Sue and Johnsy depend on each other. ·     The dangerous stormy night allows Behrman’s sacrifice to occur. Without this specific setting, the symbolic “last leaf” would not exist. C. Setting in The Pearl (John Steinbeck) Physical Setting: A poor fishing village in La Paz, Mexico; the sea, the huts, the doctor’s wealthy town. Temporal Setting: Early 20th century. Atmosphere: Natural, harsh, tense — reflecting poverty and greed. Social Environment: A class-divided society: ·         Poor indigenous villagers ·         Wealthy colonizers and merchants ·         Strong traditions and beliefs ·         Economic exploitation How Setting Shapes the Story: ·     Kino’s poverty explains why the pearl represents hope. ·     The contrast between the village and the doctor’s rich neighbourhood highlights inequality. ·     The sea provides the pearl — the object that changes everything. ·     The desert and mountains shape the chase scenes when Kino escapes. Without this setting, the social conflict and symbolism of the pearl would have no meaning. D. Setting in The Necklace (Guy de Maupassant) Physical Setting: Paris, France. Mathilde’s humble apartment and the luxurious party hall. Temporal Setting: 19th century — a time of strong class distinctions. Atmosphere: ·         At home: dull, depressing, suffocating ·         At the party: bright, glamorous, dazzling Social Environment: A society obsessed with class, appearance, fashion, and wealth. How Setting Shapes the Story: ·      The difference between Mathilde’s small apartment and the rich ballroom emphasizes her desire for status. ·      Parisian society’s materialism leads her to borrow the necklace. ·      The setting of poverty (after losing the necklace) shows her downfall clearly. ·      Ten years of hard labour reflect the harsh life of the lower class. The story’s theme—vanity and pride—depends entirely on its social setting. 5. How Setting Influences Characters • After Twenty Years The lonely nighttime street allows emotional tension between Bob and Jimmy. • The Last Leaf The cold weather deepens Johnsy’s illness and hopelessness. • The Pearl Kino’s harsh environment pushes him to fight for survival. • The Necklace Mathilde’s surroundings create her dissatisfaction and desires. 6. How Setting Supports the Theme ·         Sacrifice in The Last Leaf is shown through winter storms and poverty. ·         Greed and corruption in The Pearl are highlighted by social inequality. ·         Pride and deception in The Necklace grow from a society obsessed with appearance. ·         Loyalty vs duty in After Twenty Years appears more dramatic because of the dark, suspenseful street.   THIRD ELEMENT OF STORY: PLOT   1. What Is a Plot? Plot is the sequence of events that make up a story — what happens, why it happens, and how it happens. It shows how the story begins, how it develops, and how it ends. A strong plot has: 1.      Beginning (Exposition) 2.      Rising Action 3.      Climax 4.      Falling Action 5.      Resolution (Ending) Plot is driven by characters’ desires, problems, and actions. When a character wants something and faces obstacles, the plot begins to move. 2. Structure of Plot  Below is the complete five-part structure that is standard in literature. A. Exposition (Beginning) The story starts. Characters, setting, and the basic situation are introduced. Examples: • After Twenty Years The exposition shows a New York street at night and introduces Bob waiting for his old friend, Jimmy. • The Last Leaf We meet Sue, Johnsy, and Behrman in Greenwich Village. Johnsy is suffering from pneumonia. • The Pearl Kino, Juana, and Coyotito live in a poor fishing village; their simple life is shown. • The Necklace Mathilde lives in a modest apartment but dreams of luxury. B. Rising Action (Events that build tension) Problems appear, conflicts increase, and characters struggle. Examples: • After Twenty Years A police officer speaks to Bob. Bob waits for Jimmy, but suspense grows because Jimmy does not appear. • The Last Leaf Johnsy loses hope and believes she will die when the last leaf falls. Sue tries to help her but fails. • The Pearl Kino finds a great pearl. His neighbors become jealous; buyers cheat him; thieves attack him. • The Necklace Mathilde borrows a diamond necklace. She enjoys the party but loses the necklace afterward. C. Climax (Turning Point / Most Emotional Moment) The most intense, dramatic, or important moment of the story. Examples: • After Twenty Years Bob realizes the man he met is not Jimmy. He receives the note revealing Jimmy recognized him but could not arrest him himself. • The Last Leaf After the storm, Johnsy sees the last leaf still on the vine. She regains her will to live. • The Pearl Kino kills a man who attacks him for the pearl. This marks the point where the pearl changes from a blessing to a curse. • The Necklace Mathilde and her husband buy a replacement necklace for a huge amount of money, beginning years of suffering. D. Falling Action (Events after the climax) Consequences unfold. The tension decreases as the story moves toward the ending. Examples: • After Twenty Years The disguised officer arrests Bob and gives him Jimmy’s note. • The Last Leaf Sue reveals that Behrman died after painting the leaf on the wall. • The Pearl Kino and Juana flee from their village; trackers hunt them; their baby is killed. • The Necklace Mathilde lives a life of hardship and poverty for ten years. E. Resolution (Ending / Final Outcome) The conflict is resolved. The story’s message becomes clear. Examples: • After Twenty Years Jimmy chose duty over friendship. Bob is arrested, and the story ends with a moral twist. • The Last Leaf Johnsy survives because of Behrman’s sacrifice. His painting becomes his “masterpiece.” • The Pearl Kino throws the pearl back into the sea, realizing it brought death, not happiness. • The Necklace Mathilde learns the original necklace was fake — a shocking, ironic ending. 3. How Plot Works with Characters and Setting Plot does not exist alone. It grows from characters’ actions and is shaped by the setting. Examples: In The Last Leaf, the cold winter makes Johnsy hopeless and allows    Behrman’s sacrifice. In The Pearl, poverty motivates Kino’s decisions, creating conflict. In After Twenty Years, the dark street makes the twist possible. In The Necklace, society’s class system drives Mathilde’s desire for luxury. 4. Types of Conflicts in Plot (These tensions make the plot strong.) 1.      Character vs. Character – Kino vs. thieves 2.      Character vs. Self – Johnsy vs. hopelessness 3.      Character vs. Society – Mathilde vs. class expectations 4.      Character vs. Fate – Bob vs. destiny in After Twenty Years 5.      Character vs. Nature – The storm in The Last Leaf 5. Why Plot Is Important Plot: ·         Gives the story shape and direction ·         Builds suspense and emotional involvement ·         Reveals character development ·         Delivers the theme through events ·         Makes the story memorable and meaningful Without a plot, a story becomes just descriptions without purpose. 6. Summary A plot is the organized series of events in a story. It includes: 1.      Exposition 2.      Rising Action 3.      Climax 4.      Falling Action 5.      Resolution Through these stages, the reader sees how characters face conflict and how the story reaches its conclusion. CONFLICT — THE DRIVING FORCE OF A STORY 1. Introduction Conflict is the heart of every narrative. Without conflict, there is no story, because conflict creates the tension, struggle, and challenges that move a plot forward. Readers remain engaged because they want to know how the conflict will be resolved. Conflict is not simply a fight or argument; it is a clash of desires, goals, values, or forces that shape every decision characters make. It is the engine that drives the story from beginning to end. 2. What Is Conflict? Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. It can be internal (within a character’s mind) or external (against people, society, nature, or circumstances). A story begins when a character:         wants something,         but something prevents them from obtaining it. This blockage creates conflict—which produces suspense, emotion, and movement in the narrative. 3. Why Conflict Is Essential A. It Drives the Plot Every major event in a story emerges from conflict. Without it, there is no rising action, climax, or resolution. B. It Reveals Character How characters respond to challenges shows their: ·         personality ·         strengths and weaknesses ·         values and fears ·         growth or downfall C. It Creates Suspense Readers turn pages because they want to know: ·         Will the character succeed? ·         What will happen next? D. It Builds Emotional Connection Struggle makes characters relatable. We sympathize with them because we understand their pain, dreams, and fears. E. It Shapes Theme The main message of the story (theme) often emerges from how conflict is resolved. 4. Types of Conflict Conflict is traditionally divided into two main categories: Internal and External. A. Internal Conflict — “Character vs. Self” Internal conflict happens inside the character’s mind. It involves: ·         moral dilemmas ·         emotional struggles ·         fear, guilt, doubt, indecision ·         desires that clash ·         identity issues This form of conflict is private, psychological, and often the most powerful. Examples of Internal Conflict ·         A character must choose between honesty and loyalty. ·         A character wants success but fears failure. ·         A character struggles with guilt, grief, or low self-esteem. Internal conflict shapes character growth and contributes deeply to theme. B. External Conflict External conflict arises from outside forces that oppose the character’s goals. There are four major types: 1. Character vs. Character A struggle between two people or groups. Examples: ·         hero vs. villain ·         friend vs. friend ·         police vs. criminal ·         wife vs. husband This is the most visible and dramatic form of conflict. 2. Character vs. Society A character opposes rules, traditions, expectations, laws, or social norms. Examples: ·         fighting injustice ·         resisting discrimination ·         breaking class boundaries This conflict often exposes themes of fairness, oppression, or freedom. 3. Character vs. Nature A character struggles against natural forces such as: ·         storms ·         animals ·         illness ·         famine ·         harsh environment This conflict shows human vulnerability and survival instinct. 4. Character vs. Fate / Destiny / Supernatural A character faces forces beyond human control—fate, destiny, supernatural powers, or unchangeable circumstances. Examples: ·         cursed destiny ·         prophetic warnings ·         unavoidable tragedy This conflict raises deep questions about control vs. inevitability. 5. Structure of Conflict in a Story 1. Introduction of Conflict (Inciting Incident) The moment the problem appears and disrupts normal life. 2. Rising Action The conflict becomes more complicated. Obstacles increase. 3. Climax The peak of conflict—the most intense moment where a decision or action changes everything. 4. Falling Action Consequences of the climax start to unfold. 5. Resolution (Denouement) The conflict is solved—successfully or tragically—explaining the final outcome. 6. How Conflict Shapes Characters Conflict forces characters to: ·         make choices ·         face fears ·         recognize flaws ·         accept responsibility ·         change or collapse Through conflict, characters become: ·         stronger ·         wiser ·         defeated ·         transformed Thus, conflict is the primary tool for character development. 7. Examples of Conflict in Literature (General) Here are general illustrations before linking these concepts to your selected stories: Example 1 — Internal Conflict A doctor doubts his decision to perform a risky surgery that might save or kill the patient. Example 2 — External Conflict (Character vs. Nature) A shipwreck survivor struggles to live on a deserted island. Example 3 — External Conflict (Character vs. Society) A girl challenges cultural norms to pursue education. These simple examples show that conflict can be both large and subtle, physical and emotional. 8. How to Identify Conflict in a Story Ask the following questions: 1.      What does the main character want? 2.      What stops them from getting it? 3.      Who or what creates the obstacle? 4.      How does the character respond? 5.      What changes because of the struggle? These questions reveal both the central conflict and the deeper meaning of the story. 9. Importance of Conflict in Understanding Theme Conflict shapes and reveals the story's deeper message. For example: ·      A conflict about pride reveals the theme of humility (The Necklace). ·      A conflict about greed reveals the theme of destruction (The Pearl). ·      A conflict about identity reveals the theme of alienation (The Metamorphosis). ·      A conflict about loyalty vs. duty reveals the theme of moral responsibility (After Twenty Years). ·      A conflict about hope and despair reveals the theme of sacrifice (The Last Leaf). Thus, the nature of conflict helps readers understand the theme. Conclusion Conflict is the driving force of storytelling. It shapes the plot, reveals character, builds suspense, and expresses the central themes of a narrative. Whether the struggle is internal or external, personal or universal, conflict is what keeps readers engaged and gives meaning to the events of a story. Without conflict, literature becomes flat, passive, and emotionally empty; with conflict, it becomes powerful, dynamic, and memorable.  Difference Between Plot and Conflict Plot The plot is the sequence of events in a story — what happens from beginning to end. It includes the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Conflict The conflict is the main problem or struggle that the character faces. It is the force that drives the plot forward. In Simple Words       Plot = the story’s events.       Conflict = the problem that creates those events. THE Fifth ELEMENT OF STORY: THEME Introduction Every story is built upon four essential pillars: characters, setting, plot, and theme. While the first three elements shape the outer framework of a narrative, theme forms its deepest layer—the underlying message, the universal truth, or the central idea the writer wants readers to understand. The theme is more than a moral lesson; it is the soul of the story, giving meaning and purpose to the events and decisions of the characters. This chapter explores the **fourth element—THE THEME—**in rich detail, using powerful examples from classical short stories and novellas. 1. What Is Theme? The theme is the central insight about life or human nature that a story expresses. It connects readers to the narrative beyond surface events and helps them reflect on the deeper significance of what they have read. Key Characteristics of Theme 1.    Universal – It applies to all people, cultures, and times. 2.    Implicit – Not directly stated; readers infer it through events. 3.    Revealed through Conflict – Characters face struggles that highlight the message. 4.   Expressed through Change – Themes often reflect how characters learn, fail, transform, or suffer. 5.   Emotional and Intellectual – It appeals to both heart and mind. Theme vs. Plot ·         Plot = What happens. ·         Theme = What the events mean or reveal. For example, if the plot shows a woman losing a necklace, the theme may explore pride, materialism, or the consequences of vanity. 2. How Authors Develop Themes Authors communicate themes through: a) Characters Their desires, conflicts, actions, and transformation. b) Setting Social conditions, time period, culture, and environment that influence events. c) Plot and Conflict The struggles characters face and how they resolve them. d) Symbolism Objects, events, or actions with deeper meaning. e) Consequences The outcomes characters face because of their choices. Each of the selected stories demonstrates how theme is woven into narrative using these tools. 3. Understanding Theme through Famous Stories Below is a detailed examination of themes from five well-known works. Each example shows how authors express universal ideas through plot, conflict, and character development. A. After Twenty Years — O. Henry Central Themes 1. Loyalty vs. Duty The story explores the conflict between personal loyalty and professional responsibility. Jimmy Wells chooses duty, showing that moral integrity can be more powerful than personal attachment. 2. Passage of Time Time changes people in unexpected ways. The two friends take different paths that shape their identities. 3. Choices Shape Destiny Bob’s involvement in crime leads to his downfall; Jimmy’s honesty leads to respect. How the Story Shows Theme ·         Through Bob’s arrest, readers understand that actions have consequences. ·         Jimmy’s note reveals emotional struggle, highlighting the tension between friendship and justice. B. The Last Leaf — O. Henry Central Themes 1. Sacrifice and Compassion Old Behrman sacrifices his life to give hope to Johnsy by painting the last leaf. 2. The Healing Power of Hope Johnsy’s recovery begins when she believes the leaf will not fall. 3. The Nature of True Art Art becomes meaningful when it serves humanity, not ego. How the Story Shows Theme ·     Behrman’s final masterpiece is not a portrait but an act of love. ·     Sue’s kindness and persistence highlight friendship and emotional support. C. The Necklace — Guy de Maupassant Central Themes 1. Vanity and Pride Mathilde’s desire to appear wealthy leads to her downfall. 2. Deception and False Appearances The borrowed necklace symbolizes illusions of social superiority. 3. The Cost of Materialism The years of hardship result from valuing appearance more than contentment. How the Story Shows Theme ·      Mathilde’s suffering reveals the painful consequences of pride. ·      The final twist—that the necklace was fake—exposes the emptiness of social pretensions. D. The Pearl — John Steinbeck Central Themes 1. Greed and Its Destructive Power The pearl, once a symbol of hope, becomes a source of evil and ruin. 2. Oppression and Social Injustice The wealthy, doctors, and dealers exploit the poor. 3. Loss of Innocence Kino transforms from a peaceful pearl diver to a violent, desperate man. How the Story Shows Theme ·         Coyotito’s death exposes the tragic cost of blind ambition. ·         Kino’s obsession destroys the very peace he sought to protect. E. The Metamorphosis — Franz Kafka Central Themes 1. Alienation and Isolation Gregor’s transformation symbolizes how modern society isolates individuals. 2. Loss of Identity He becomes an insect physically, but emotionally, he had already lost his sense of self through work and responsibility. 3. Dehumanization Gregor is treated as a burden once he becomes “useless,” revealing society’s cruelty. How the Story Shows Theme His family’s gradual rejection highlights conditional love. Gregor’s death shows the ultimate consequence of losing identity and human connection. 4. Why Theme Is Essential in Storytelling a) Provides Meaning Readers understand the deeper purpose behind events. b) Connects Stories to Real Life Themes help readers reflect on: ·         moral dilemmas, ·         social issues, ·         emotional experiences, ·         personal growth. c) Unifies the Narrative The theme acts as the glue, connecting characters, conflict, plot, and setting. d) Evokes Reflection A powerful theme stays with the reader long after the story ends, shaping how they think about the world. 5. How to Identify Theme in Any Story 1.      Look at the main conflict. What struggle drives the story? 2.      Observe how characters change. What do they learn or lose? 3.      Examine the ending. What message does the conclusion reveal? 4.      Notice repeated ideas or symbols. These often point to theme. 5.      Ask: What truth about life is the author showing? Using these strategies, readers can uncover themes in all forms of fiction. Conclusion Theme is the fourth and most philosophical element of a story. While characters act, the plot unfolds, and the setting shapes the background, theme gives meaning to everything. Whether it is the loyalty in After Twenty Years, the sacrifice in The Last Leaf, the greed in The Pearl, the vanity in The Necklace, or the alienation in The Metamorphosis, theme transforms simple stories into timeless human experiences. With a clear understanding of theme, students and readers can appreciate literature not only as entertainment but as a mirror reflecting the deeper truths of life.  1. Point of View Point of view refers to who is telling the story and what they know. It shapes how much information readers receive and how closely they connect with characters. In first-person, the narrator uses “I” and shares personal thoughts and feelings; in third-person limited, the narrator follows one character’s inner world; in third-person omniscient, the narrator knows everything about all characters; and in second-person, the reader is addressed as “you.” Understanding point of view helps students see how the writer controls perspective, emotion, and the flow of information in the story. Examples from the literature: 1. After Twenty Years (O. Henry) The story is told in third-person limited, mainly following the policeman’s observations. We only know what he sees and guesses, which creates suspense when he meets the old friend. 2. The Last Leaf (O. Henry) The story uses third-person omniscient, because the narrator knows the thoughts of Sue, Johnsy, and even informs us about Behrman’s secret actions. 3. The Pearl (John Steinbeck) Steinbeck uses third-person limited, mostly from Kino’s perspective, allowing us to feel his hopes, fears, and growing greed. 4. The Necklace (Guy de Maupassant) The narrator uses third-person omniscient, letting us understand both Mathilde’s desires and her husband’s simple, content nature. 5. The Metamorphosis (Franz Kafka) It uses third-person limited, focused on Gregor Samsa’s inner thoughts after turning into an insect. 2. Tone Tone is the writer’s attitude toward the subject or the audience, expressed through word choice, details, and style. It may be serious, humorous, angry, hopeful, sarcastic, or formal, and it influences how the reader interprets the message. Tone can shift throughout a text to reflect changes in events or emotions, and recognizing it helps students understand what the writer feels and what they want the reader to feel or notice. Examples from the literature: 1. After Twenty Years The tone is calm but suspenseful, as the narrator quietly describes the street and the policeman, hinting at something unusual. 2. The Last Leaf The tone is hopeful yet serious, showing Johnsy’s illness but also the warmth and care of Sue and Behrman. 3. The Pearl The tone becomes dark and tragic, especially as Kino’s greed and fear grow. 4. The Necklace The tone is critical and ironic, showing how Mathilde’s desire for luxury causes her downfall. 5. The Metamorphosis The tone is disturbing and tragic, reflecting Gregor’s helplessness and isolation. 3. Mood Mood is the emotional atmosphere created for the reader—the feeling you get while reading a story, poem, or passage. Writers build mood through setting, imagery, descriptive words, and actions. A scene may feel tense, peaceful, joyful, gloomy, mysterious, or frightening. While tone shows the writer’s attitude, mood shows the reader’s emotional experience, and understanding it helps students interpret how the story is meant to make them feel. Examples from the literature: 1. After Twenty Years The mood is mysterious, especially when the policeman meets a man waiting in the dark doorway. 2. The Last Leaf The mood is sad but uplifting, particularly when the last leaf becomes a symbol of hope. 3. The Pearl The mood shifts from hopeful (finding the pearl) to fearful and tense (attacks, greed, danger). 4. The Necklace The mood is stressful and depressing, especially when Mathilde loses the necklace. 5. The Metamorphosis The mood is gloomy and suffocating, showing Gregor trapped in his insect body and family rejection. 4. Dialogue Dialogue refers to the spoken words exchanged between characters. It reveals personality, builds relationships, and moves the plot forward. Through dialogue, readers understand conflicts, emotions, and motivations without long explanations. Good dialogue sounds natural, reflects the speaker’s background, and adds realism to the story. It also breaks up long sections of narration, making the text more engaging and dynamic for students. Examples from the literature: 1. After Twenty Years Dialogue between the policeman and the waiting man reveals their past friendship and builds the twist ending. 2. The Last Leaf Sue’s dialogue with Johnsy (“Don’t be foolish! The doctor said…”) shows her worry and love. 3. The Pearl Kino and Juana’s conversations show their struggle—Juana warns that “the pearl is evil.” 4. The Necklace Mathilde’s dramatic speech (“I have no jewels!”) shows her dissatisfaction and vanity. 5. The Metamorphosis Limited dialogue (mostly Gregor trying to speak but sounding like an insect) shows the distance between him and his family.   5. Narration Narration is the storytelling voice that provides events, descriptions, and explanations in a text. It gives readers essential information about characters, settings, actions, and thoughts. Narration can be direct and simple or rich and descriptive, depending on the writer’s style. It helps control the pace of the story—speeding it up through action or slowing it down through detail. Understanding narration helps students see how stories are shaped and organized. Examples from the literature: 1. After Twenty Years The narration describes the empty street, creating a quiet, suspenseful start. 2. The Last Leaf Narration explains Behrman’s lifelong dream of painting a masterpiece, setting up the emotional ending. 3. The Pearl Narration describes the songs Kino hears (“Song of the Family,” “Song of Evil”), deepening the story’s meaning. 4. The Necklace Narration explains Mathilde’s daydreams about wealth and luxury. 5. The Metamorphosis Narration reveals Gregor’s thoughts as he tries to get out of bed despite being an insect. 6. Symbolism Symbolism is the use of objects, characters, or events to represent deeper meanings beyond their literal sense. A symbol can be a heart representing love, a storm representing conflict, or a journey representing personal growth. Writers use symbolism to add layers of meaning and make stories richer. When students identify symbols, they understand that literature communicates not just through events but also through hidden messages and ideas that invite deeper thinking. Examples from the literature: 1. After Twenty Years The doorway in the dark street symbolizes the unknown past and hidden truth between the two friends. 2. The Last Leaf The last ivy leaf symbolizes hope, survival, and sacrifice, because Behrman paints it to save Johnsy. 3. The Pearl The pearl symbolizes both hope and greed—it promises a better life but brings destruction. 4. The Necklace The necklace symbolizes false pride and illusion, because it looks expensive but is actually fake. 5. The Metamorphosis Gregor’s insect body symbolizes dehumanization, showing how his family sees him as a burden, not a person. Example from Story: In a folktale, a young girl wants to save her village from drought. Her determination (motivation) leads her to confront a dangerous mountain spirit (antagonist). Her bravery during the journey reveals that true courage comes from caring for others (theme). Classroom Uses (for teachers) ·         Ask students to list 5 traits of the protagonist with evidence. ·         Create a character map: name, goal, strengths, weakness, change. ·         Rewrite a scene from the antagonist’s viewpoint. ·         Compare dynamic vs static characters in the same story. Chapter-end Questions: Short Questions 1.      Define protagonist. 2.      What is the difference between dynamic and static characters? 3.      How can minor characters support a story? Long Questions 1.      Explain how the protagonist and antagonist create conflict in a story. 2.      Describe the different techniques of characterization with examples. Activity Write a short paragraph describing a character using both direct and indirect characterization. All Elements for the Teacher Understanding 1. Characters Definition: Characters are the people, animals, or beings who perform actions and experience events. Types & roles Protagonist: Main character; the story revolves around them. Antagonist: Person or force opposing the protagonist (can be a person, society, nature, or internal struggle). Dynamic Character: Changes internally (beliefs, attitude) during the story. Static Character: Remains essentially the same. Round Character: Complex, with many traits and inner life. Flat Character: Simple, one- or two-trait character often used to support the plot. Foil: A character who contrasts with the protagonist to highlight particular qualities. How to teach / tips ·         Use character maps: name, role, goal, motivation, flaw, change. ·         Ask: What does the character want? What stops them? ·         Show rather than tell: use dialogue and action to reveal traits. Examples ·         Protagonist: Amir in a coming-of-age story (wants acceptance). ·         Antagonist: A tyrant ruler, or fear inside the protagonist. 3. Setting Definition: The time and place of the story, and its cultural and physical environment. Components ·         Time: Historical period, year, season, time of day. ·         Place: City, country, building, room. ·         Social context: Class, culture, laws, norms. ·         Atmosphere: Weather, lighting, sounds — which shape mood. Why it matters ·         Setting shapes characters’ behaviour and limits their choices. ·         It creates mood and can function as a character itself. How to teach / tips ·      Have students rewrite a scene in a different setting to show how meaning changes. ·      Use sensory details: ask students to list sights, sounds, smells to build the setting. 4. Plot (Structure) Definition: The ordered sequence of events — what happens and why. Classic five-part structure 1.    Exposition: Introduces characters, setting, and situation. 2.    Rising action: Complications and attempts to solve problems;    tension builds. 3.    Climax: Turning point — highest tension; a decisive action or revelation. 4.    Falling action: Consequences of the climax; events move toward closure. 5.    Resolution (Denouement): Final outcome; loose ends tied up (or intentionally left open). Types of plot: ·         Linear: Chronological order. ·         Nonlinear: Uses flashbacks, multiple timelines. ·         Episodic: Series of loosely connected episodes. ·         Circular: Ends where it began, showing change or lack of it. How to teach / tips ·         Plot diagram: draw the five parts on a mountain-shaped graph. ·         Ask students to label scenes in stories they read. ·         Rewrite the climax to see its effect. 5. Conflict Definition: The central struggle that drives the plot. Major types ·         Character vs Character (external conflict). ·         Character vs Self (internal conflict — decisions, emotions). ·         Character vs Nature (storms, animals). ·         Character vs Society (laws, customs). ·         Character vs Fate/Supernatural (prophecies, gods, ghosts). ·         Character vs Technology (modern addition — AI, machines). Why conflict matters ·         Conflict creates stakes and makes readers care. ·         Character growth typically follows attempts to resolve conflict. How to teach / tips ·       Identify the main conflict in short stories. ·       Create “conflict cards” and have students pair protagonists with obstacles. 6. Theme Definition: The underlying message, idea, or moral of a story — what the story says about life. Characteristics ·      Themes are usually stated as general statements (e.g., “Friendship can overcome fear”), not single words. ·      A story can have multiple themes; however, one central theme often dominates. How to find theme ·      Ask: What does the protagonist learn? What are repeated patterns or symbols? ·      Distinguish theme from plot: theme is meaning, plot is events. How to teach / tips ·      Use evidence: require students to support a theme statement with scenes, dialogue, and outcomes. ·      Compare different stories that share a theme. 7. Point of View (Narration) Definition: The perspective from which the story is told. Main types ·       First person (I/we): Intimate, subjective, limited to narrator’s knowledge. ·       Second person (you): Rare; pulls the reader into the action. ·      Third person limited: Uses he/she; follows one character’s inner life. ·      Third person omniscient: All-knowing narrator; can enter many minds. ·      Third person objective: Reports actions and dialogue only; no inner thoughts. Effect on the story ·      POV controls what the reader knows and trusts. ·      Switching POV can create irony, dramatic irony, or confusion if not handled carefully. How to teach / tips ·      Re-tell a short scene from multiple POVs. ·      Discuss reliability: Is the narrator trustworthy? (unreliable narrators add complexity). 8. Tone and Mood: Tone (writer’s attitude): How the author feels about the subject (sarcastic, earnest, bitter). Mood (reader’s feeling): The atmosphere created (eerie, joyful, tense). Relationship ·       Tone helps create mood; however, the reader’s mood may differ based on personal experience. How to teach / tips ·      Use short passages and ask students to label tone and mood with evidence (word choice, sentence length, imagery). 9. Dialogue and Voice: Dialogue: Spoken exchanges between characters; it reveals character, advances plot, and provides information. Voice: The unique style of the narrator or character (diction, rhythm, syntax). How to teach / tips ·       Practice writing dialogue that reveals relationships and subtext. ·       Encourage distinct voices for different characters (education level, background, mannerisms). 10. Symbolism & Imagery Symbolism: When objects, places, or characters represent larger ideas (e.g., a key = freedom). Imagery: Language that appeals to the senses; builds vivid mental pictures. How to teach / tips ·         Have students find symbols and explain what they stand for. ·         Create imagery worksheets: match sensory words to scenes. 11. Structure & Style (Form) Structure: How the story is organized (chapters, flashbacks, multiple POVs). Style: Word choice, sentence structure, use of literary devices (metaphor, simile, irony). How to teach / tips ·       Analyze paragraphs for sentence length and rhythm — discuss effects. ·       Compare two authors on style and note differences. 12. Genre & Conventions Genre: Category (realistic fiction, fantasy, mystery, sci-fi, historical fiction, etc.). Conventions: Expected features (mystery often includes clues; fantasy includes world-building). How to teach / tips ·      Have students identify conventions of chosen genres and write a short scene respecting or subverting them. 13. Literary Devices (overview) ·         Metaphor/Simile — compare for effect. ·         Irony — expectation vs reality. ·         Foreshadowing — hints of what’s to come. ·         Flashback — past event inserted into current narrative. ·         Allusion — reference to another text or event. How to teach / tips ·         Use device cards with definitions and student-provided examples. 14. Annotated Short Story (example with elements labelled) Read this short passage; afterwards the elements are labelled. Story (150–180 words): Mariam had never left the village. On the morning of the festival, she stood by the dried riverbank and watched caravans roll past with bright cloth and drums. Her father had always warned her that the city was dangerous, and yet a folded paper map lay in her pocket — a secret she kept like a warm stone. When a thief snatched the map, Mariam chased him through narrow alleys and, at the market’s centre, confronted him. He handed back the map, not because he was kind, but because he saw her resolve and feared the village elders’ wrath. Mariam realized then that courage was not the absence of fear but the decision to act despite it. That evening she boarded the cart toward the city, the festival’s drums fading behind her. Annotations (brief): ·      Characters: Mariam (protagonist), her father (minor), thief (antagonist). ·      Setting: Village and market; morning, festival atmosphere. ·      Plot: Exposition (Mariam at riverbank) → Rising action (map stolen, chase) → Climax (confrontation) → Falling action (map returned) → Resolution (Mariam leaves). ·      Conflict: Character vs Self (fear) and Character vs Character (thief). ·      Theme: Courage involves action despite fear. ·      Point of View: Third-person limited (focus on Mariam’s thoughts). ·      Tone/Mood: Hopeful and tense; festival mood contrasts with personal risk. ·      Symbol: The map = freedom / possibility. 15. Exercises (for a workbook) A. Multiple choice (answers below). 1.      The climax of a story is: a) the introduction of characters b) the highest point of tension c) the final line of the book d) the setting description 2.      A character who does not change is called: a) dynamic b) round c) static d) protagonist 3.      Third-person omniscient means: a) narrator knows all characters’ thoughts b) narrator uses “I” c) narrator is a character in the story d) narrator sees only one character’s mind 4.      Which is an example of symbolism? a) “She ran quickly.” b) A locked door representing secrets. c) “He said hello.” d) A long sentence describing weather. 5.      Character vs Society conflict best fits which example? a) A boy arguing with his friend. b) A woman fighting an unjust law. c) A sailor battling a storm. d) A student solving a math problem. B. Short answer 1.    Identify the protagonist, antagonist, and main conflict in your favourite short story (2–3 lines). 2.   Write two sentences showing dialogue that reveals a secret without saying it directly. 3.    Rewrite a familiar fairy-tale opening line to change the setting to a futuristic city. 4.   List three sensory details you would use to make a market scene feel alive. 5.    State a theme in one full sentence and give one line of evidence from the text that supports it. C. Creative task Write a 200-word scene that includes: clear setting, one conflict, and a symbol. Underline the symbol and label the main element you used. Answers (A): 1:b 2:c 3:a 4:b 5:b 16. Checklist: How to analyse any short story (step-by-step) 1.      Who are the characters? Note roles and changes. 2.      Where and when does it happen? Note sensory details. 3.      Summarize the plot in five sentences corresponding to the five parts. 4.      Identify the main conflict(s). 5.      Find evidence for the theme — state theme in a sentence. 6.      Note POV and reliability. 7.      Observe tone, mood, and important images or symbols. 8.      Identify at least two literary devices. 9.      Write one sentence on how the ending affects the theme.